Is Venezuela now a hybrid state, where the line between governance and criminality has blurred, or even disappeared altogether? The start of this evolution can be traced back 20 years to then-President Hugo Chávez and his willingness to use all means necessary to cling to power.
Since then, the country has seen the emergence of new generations of hybrid armed groups, which systematically coordinate and cooperate with elements of the state. In some parts of Venezuela, authorities now co-govern with these groups, working hand in hand to maintain social control over the population and to counter political, social, and economic threats.
Tren de Aragua became Venezuela's most feared homegrown gang by first thoroughly controlling the prison of Tocorón and then, the neighborhood of San Vicente.
The FBL were a useful criminal ally to Maduro's regime in Venezuela. They were granted favors, political power, and impunity, before seeing a precipitous downfall.
President Maduro has proven highly resilient, weathering sanctions abroad and an economic crisis at home. His hybrid state creation helped him to do so.
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